Expandable cardiac harness for treating congestive heart failure

ABSTRACT

A cardiac harness for treating congestive heart failure is disclosed. The harness applies elastic, compressive reinforcement on the left ventricle to reduce deleterious wall tension and to resist shape change of the ventricle during the mechanical cardiac cycle. Rather than imposing a dimension beyond which the heart cannot expand, the harness provides no hard limit over the range of diastolic expansion of the ventricle. Instead, the harness follows the contour of the heart throughout diastole and continuously exerts gentle resistance to stretch. Also disclosed is a method of delivering the cardiac harness to the heart minimally invasively.

This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 10/788,791 filedFeb. 27, 2004 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,081,086 which is a continuation ofU.S. Ser. No. 09/634,043 filed Aug. 8, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No.6,702,732, which claims priority to U.S. Ser. No. 60/188,282 filed Mar.10, 2000, now abandoned, the contents of each of which are incorporatedherein by reference. This application is co-pending with the followingapplications: U.S. Ser. No. 09/952,145 filed Sep. 10, 2001; U.S. Ser.No. 10/314,696 filed Dec. 9, 2002; U.S. Ser. No. 10/693,577 filed Oct.23, 2003; U.S. Ser. No. 10/705,989 filed Nov. 12, 2003; U.S. Ser. No.10/714,189 filed Nov. 13, 2003; and U.S. Ser. No. 10/865,086 filed Jun.9, 2004.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to mechanical systems for treatingcongestive heart failure. Specifically, the invention relates to devicesthat interface mechanically with a patient's failing heart in order toimprove its pumping function.

2. Description of the Related Art

Congestive heart failure (“CHF”) is characterized by the failure of theheart to pump blood at sufficient flow rates to meet the metabolicdemand of tissues, especially the demand for oxygen. Historically,congestive heart failure has been managed with a variety of drugs. Thereis also a considerable history of the use of devices to improve cardiacoutput. For example, physicians have employed many designs for poweredleft-ventricular assist pumps. Multi-chamber pacing has been employed tooptimally synchronize the beating of the heart chambers to improvecardiac output. Various skeletal muscles have been investigated aspotential autologous power sources for ventricular assist. Among these,dynamic cardiomyoplasty using the latissimus dorsi muscle has attractedthe most interest. It has been suggested that the beneficial effects ofthis procedure stem from both an active, dynamic, systolic assistanceand a passive, adynamic girdling of the heart that limits diastolicstretch of the ventricle.

To exploit these beneficial clinical features, researchers and cardiacsurgeons have experimented with prosthetic “girdles” around the heart.One such design reported in the literature is a prosthetic “sock” thatis wrapped around the heart. Others have proposed the application of anintraventricular splint to reduce the volume of the left ventricle.Several design shortcomings are apparent with each.

The intraventricular splint, for example, extends through the leftventricular wall. Consequently, some components of the splint contactthe patient's blood. This creates the potential for thrombogenesis, orthe generation of blood clots. In addition, splint placement requiresperforation of the ventricular wall, which may lead to leakage problemssuch as hemorrhage or hematoma formation. Furthermore, because one endof the splint extends to the epicardial surface of the left ventricle,options for the orientation of the splint are limited.

Pulling opposite walls of the ventricle closer together may reduceaverage wall stress via LaPlace's law, by reduction in ventriculardiameter. However, this may create an irregular ventricular wallcontour. This creates stress concentrations in the regions of theventricle that are between the localized compression points.Consequently, this may lead to aneurysm formation, fibrosis, andimpairment of the contractility and compliance of the ventricle. Also,the resulting irregular contour of the endocardial surface of the leftventricle may lead to localized hemostasis or turbulence, which may inturn lead to thrombus formation and possible thromboembolism.

Coronary artery disease causes approximately 70% of congestive heartfailure. Acute myocardial infarction (“AMI”) due to obstruction of acoronary artery is a common initiating event that can lead ultimately toheart failure. This process by which this occurs is referred to asremodeling and is described in the text Heart Disease, 5th ed., E.Braunwald, Ch. 37 (1997). Remodeling after a myocardial infarctioninvolves two distinct types of physical changes to the size, shape andthickness of the left ventricle. The first, known as infarct expansion,involves a localized thinning and stretching of the myocardium in theinfarct zone. This myocardium can go through progressive phases offunctional impairment, depending on the severity of the infarction.These phases reflect the underlying myocardial wall motion abnormalityand include an initial dyssynchrony, followed by hypokinesis, akinesis,and finally, in cases that result in left ventricular aneurysm,dyskinesis. This dyskinesis has been described as “paradoxical” motionbecause the infarct zone bulges outward during systole while the rest ofthe left ventricle contracts inward. Consequently, end-systolic volumein dyskinetic hearts increases relative to nondyskinetic hearts.

The second physical characteristic of a remodeling left ventricle is theattempted compensation of noninfarcted region of myocardium for theinfarcted region by becoming hyperkinetic and expanding acutely, causingthe left ventricle to assume a more spherical shape. This helps topreserve stroke volume after an infarction. These changes increase wallstress in the myocardium of the left ventricle. It is thought that walltension is one of the most important parameters that stimulate leftventricular remodeling (Pfeffer et al. 1990). In response to increasedwall tension or stress, further ventricular dilatation ensues. Thus, avicious cycle can result, in which dilatation leads to furtherdilatation and greater functional impairment. On a cellular level,unfavorable adaptations occur as well. This further compounds thefunctional deterioration.

Some have proposed that an elastic wrap around the heart might attenuatethe remodeling process that is actively underway in failing hearts,prompting treatment with latissimus dorsi cardiomyoplasty. Based onexperimental work to date, passive latissimus dorsi muscles appear to bebest suited for this application. Oh et al. (1997) publishedexperimental work in which they found a relatively inelastic prostheticfabric wrap to be inferior to adynamic latissimus dorsi in bringingabout reverse remodeling in an experimental model of heart failure. Thiswas attributed to the greater elasticity of the muscle wrap.

It is thought that application of a device to provide compressivereinforcement similar to that of adynamic cardiomyoplasty might betherapeutic in treating dilated, failing hearts. Because heart failureis only the clinical end-stage of a continuous remodeling process, sucha device might be able to attenuate or stop remodeling after amyocardial infarction far before the onset of heart failure. Such adevice would have different functional requirements from a device thatis used solely to treat established heart failure.

One requirement is to provide a slight elastic compression to theepicardial surface of the left ventricular wall. The device should allowexpansion and contraction of the heart, but continue to apply gentleelastic compression to the left ventricle. This would reducecircumferential and longitudinal wall tension, thereby improvingefficiency, lowering energy expenditure, reducing neurohormonalactivation, encouraging favorable cellular changes, and stabilizing thedimensions of the heart. This mechanical action is often referred to as“myocardial sparing.” The device should effect myocardial sparingwithout limiting the motion or the dimensions of the heart. Nor shouldit actively change the shape of the heart by pulling it or squeezing it.In fact, imposing a rigid barrier to limit distension or to squeeze theheart can be potentially dangerous. Shabetai in The Role of thePericardium in the Pathophysiology of Heart Failure notes that thepericardium exerts 3-4 mm Hg of pressure against the heart. Cardiacfunction can be adversely affected with just a slight increase inpericardial constraint. For example, cardiac tamponade begins to be seenwith pericardial pressures as low as 5-10 mm Hg.

A second requirement of such a device is to provide reinforcement thatprevents the further shape change of the left ventricle without acutelychanging the shape by its application. The device would act to preventboth global dilatation toward a more spherical shape and local infarctexpansion after a myocardial infarction. In fact, if the local infarctexpansion can be minimized with such a device, the compensatory globaldilatation and increase in sphericity may be prevented. What is neededis a mild compressive support that conforms to the epicardial contour.As the left ventricle or portions of the left ventricle distend outward,they would be-met with greater pressure from the device. The presence ofthe device would likely cause the left ventricle to reverse-remodel andits dimensions to stabilize and even shrink. As this occurs, the devicewould be able to shrink with the left ventricle like a latissimus dorsimuscle. The device would supply less pressure as the diameter decreases.Conversely, the device would supply gradually increasing pressure as thediameter or local distention increases. This ideal was expressed by Ohet al. in their description of the benefits of a passive latissimusdorsi muscle wrap.

The ability of the device to conform to the heart as it shrinks orexpands is of great importance. A device would need to possessconsiderable elasticity in order to do so. The left ventricle in adilated, failing heart does not distend significantly because smalldiameter changes are sufficient to achieve the necessary stroke volume.In contrast, a normal heart has a much smaller left ventriculardiameter. For example, Li (1997) noted that to achieve a 70-cc strokevolume, a normal left ventricle of 2.8 cm radius contracts down to 1.7cm, a 40% decrease. However, a dilated ventricle of 4.5-cm radiusachieves the same stroke volume by contracting to 4.2 cm, only a 7%decrease. Thus, in order to achieve the same stroke volume as a dilatedheart, the normal heart's ventricular diameter must change by a greateramount. Consequently, a device with sufficient elasticity for treatingdilated hearts in established heart failure may not be able to treat aheart of normal dimensions that has suffered a myocardial infarction.

The ability of a harness to conform to the heart is also theoreticallyimportant in preventing dilated heart failure after acute myocardialinfarctions because it may be important to provide reinforcement duringsystole, especially early systole. Prosthetic fabrics impose arelatively inelastic barrier that acts only at the end-limits ofdiastole. In addition to providing more myocardial sparing over agreater portion of the cardiac cycle, a device that remains incompressive contact with the heart into systole would counteract the“paradoxical bulging” of the infarct region that occurs in dyskinetic,aneurysmal hearts during systole. This may attenuate infarct expansionand therefore limit the extent of remodeling that further ensues.

Another problem with the inelastic nature of fabric wraps, or knits, isthat normal, healthy changes in the dimensions of the heart are notaccommodated. In addition to chronic pathologic changes in ventriculardiameter that can occur, such as those that accompany remodeling, normalphysiological changes also occur. For example, in order to keep up withincreased metabolic demands from physical exertion or exercise, theheart may dilate acutely. A wrap must be able to accommodate theseincreases without imposing excessive pressures.

An important problem with the use of fabrics, such as knits and weaves,as well as with other materials previously used for this application, istheir dimensional coupling between orthogonal directions. When stretchedin one direction, there is considerable foreshortening in theperpendicular direction. Typically, the greater the elasticity present,the greater the foreshortening that is seen in the perpendiculardirection. When used in a wrap around the heart, such a material canlead to serious problems. The greatest distension and wall stress isoriented in the circumferential direction around the left ventricle.Therefore it is logical to align the more compliant direction of thefabric to be parallel to it. As the left ventricle fills and thediameter increases, the fabric stretches in the circumferentialdirection. This causes shortening in the longitudinal direction, whichis perpendicular to the direction of stretch. When used in a cardiacwrap, this results in increased sphericity of the ventricle duringdiastole, relative to the unwrapped heart. Sphericity is defined as theratio of the diameter to the length of the heart or ventricle. Increasedsphericity of the left ventricle is associated with decreased survivaland an increased incidence of mitral regurgitation. Kono (1992) andDouglas (1989) documented this in published studies. There is a need fora structure that does not foreshorten and increase sphericity as itprovides elastic, compressive reinforcement to the heart, especially theleft ventricle.

Since the mid 1980's a promising procedure has been evaluatedclinically. The procedure, dynamic cardiomyoplasty, involves surgicallydissecting the patient's latissimus dorsi muscle, introducing it intothe thoracic cavity, and then wrapping and attaching the muscle to theheart. An implantable electrical stimulator is connected to the musclein order to stimulate and pace it in synchrony with the heart. Thiscauses the muscle to contract and also transforms the muscle, making itmore fatigue-resistant. The original premise behind dynamiccardiomyoplasty was that these muscle contractions, by virtue of thegeometry of the wrap, would squeeze the heart, and thus provide systolicassistance. If successful, an essentially patient-powered, relativelyinexpensive, non-blood-contacting, easily placed ventricular-assistdevice could be employed.

The first reported clinical case of dynamic cardiomyoplasty using alatissimus dorsi wrap was published in 1985. Since then, over 1,000patients have been treated with this experimental procedure. Numerouspublished studies have shown that the procedure produces significantimprovement in clinical status, as graded by the New York HeartAssociation (“NYHA”) classification scale, a slight but significanthemodynamic or systolic function improvement, and a reduction in thenumber of patient hospital visits after the procedure. However, animprovement in survival has yet to be consistently demonstrated.Furthermore, perhaps due to their frail condition, NYHA class IVpatients have not fared well with the procedure. This has limited itsuse to NYHA class III patients. It appears that the skeletal musclewrap, probably because of its deterioration over time, does not providesustained squeezing of the heart over time. Yet, the clinical benefitsof the procedure appear to persist. This paradox has led to considerableresearch into the underlying mechanisms of dynamic latissimus dorsicardiomyoplasty.

This research has resulted in several independently additivehypothetical mechanisms to explain the benefits of dynamiccardiomyoplasty. The original concept of systolic squeezing of theheart, in particular the left ventricle, was shown in experimental workto provide hemodynamic benefit. But there additionally appears to be aconsiderable benefit derived from the presence of the passive,unstimulated latissimus dorsi wrap alone. Drs. Chiu (1992), Carpentier(1993), and others hypothesized that the presence of the latissimusdorsi wrap provides a beneficial passive function beyond the benefits ofsystolic-squeezing augmentation. It was speculated that the muscle wrapacts as a girdle around the heart. The girdle is thought to impose aphysical limit on the heart to prevent it from dilating beyond itsboundaries. This is commonly referred to as the “girdling” effect. Aseparate and equally powerful hypothesis was that the muscle wrap helpsthe native myocardium bear some of the load, in essence reducingmyocardial tension or wall stress, via Laplace's law, by creating athicker wall. This has been referred to as the “myocardial sparing”effect by virtue of the reduction in wall stress and concomitantreduction in oxygen consumption. The benefits of these two passivemechanisms are thought to be additive with the systolic squeezingbenefits of cardiomyoplasty. Published experimental work by Nakajima etal. (1994), Chen et al. (1995), Kawaguchi et al. (1992 & 1994), Kass etal. (1995), Capouya et al. (1993), Chekanov (1994) and others providesupport to the validity of the hypothetical mechanisms.

The concept of using a permanently implantable passive, non-contractingwrap around the heart to prevent its further deterioration is not new.Suggestions have been published in the literature. Kass et al. (1995)questioned whether an “artificial elastic sock” could be used in lieu ofskeletal muscle. They speculated that in dynamic cardiomyoplasty, thelatissimus dorsi wrap provides some of its benefit by acting as anelastic constraint around the epicardial surface. They further suggestthat the passive skeletal muscle wrap stiffens gradually with stretch,unlike pericardium, which is highly compliant at low levels of stretchbut becomes very stiff when expanded beyond resting dimensions.Throughout the article, the importance of gradually increasing stiffnessover the entire range of cardiac operating dimensions is emphasized.Despite the conceptual discussion, however, there is no mention of how acardiac wrap that is both elastic over the entire range of cardiacdimensions and gradually stiffens with stretch can be designed or built.

Vaynblat et al. (1997) report on the experimental use of an expandedpolytetrafluoroethylene (“ePTFE”) prosthetic wrap in animals. Theyconstructed the wrap from sheets of ePTFE material that were sized tothe heart and sutured to finish the wrap. ePTFE has very limitedelasticity and stretch. The ePTFE sheet wraps were shown to reduceventricular dilatation in a failing-heart model, but they did notimprove cardiac function.

Oh et al. (1998) report on a similar study using a Marlex polypropylenemesh sheet material. In this study they compared the benefits ofunpaced, adynamic latissimus dorsi muscle wraps with those constructedof Marlex sheet material. It was found that the latissimus dorsi wrapattenuated dilatation of left ventricle in a failing heart model to agreater extent than the Marlex wrap. The superiority of the latissimusdorsi wrap was attributed largely to its “elastic stretchability” andthe resulting dynamic constraint that it provided. This“yield-and-support” characteristic could not be attained usingprosthetic membranes, such as Marlex and ePTFE. In addition, thefibrotic reactions that are likely to be induced by the prostheticmembranes have a further adverse effect on compliance. In furthersupport of the contention made by Kass, Oh et al. state that pericardium“shows virtually no restraining effect on chronic cardiac dilatation.”Despite this, the authors mention that latissimus dorsi cardiomyoplasty,whether dynamic or adynamic, is a very invasive and complex surgicalprocedure. The exclusion of NYHA Class IV patients from the dynamiccardiomyoplasty clinical trials was partially attributed to this. Oh etal. suggest that cardiac binding with a prosthetic membrane may still beof value, even with shortcomings, because it lends itself to minimallyinvasive surgical techniques.

None of these prosthetic cardiac wraps operates elastically in thismanner over the entire range of cardiac dimensions. Thus, only an“end-girdling” effect is provided. The myocardial sparing effect is onlypresent for a brief moment at the end of diastole. In addition, becausethese inelastic wraps counteract dilatation at the limits of diastole,they prevent the heart from expanding beyond that dimensional limit toaccommodate increased physiological demand, such as during exercise. Inaddition, even if the wraps could bring about desirablereverse-remodeling and shrinkage of the heart, a wrap, due to its fixedcircumference, may not be able to shrink evenly with a heart whosecircumference is decreasing. In fact, the prosthetic wraps may interactwith the heart like a fiber-reinforced composite material and even fixor “cement” the circumference and diameter of the heart, such that it isunable to shrink.

Because the three underlying mechanical mechanisms of dynamiccardiomyoplasty discussed above are considered to be independentlyadditive, it is thought that the addition of active systolic assistanceto the heart would be more beneficial than a passive wrap alone. In apublished experiment by Mott et al. (1998), dynamically paced latissimusdorsi was compared with unpaced, adynamic latissimus dorsi in anexperimental heart failure model. It was found that the dynamic, pacedwrap was capable of reversing remodeling to a much greater extent thanan unpaced latissimus dorsi wrap. Mott et al. also speculate thatperhaps the dynamic and adynamic functions of latissimus dorsi wrapsprovide complimentary benefit to failing hearts. The adynamic wrapprovides reinforcement only during diastole, while the dynamic wrapprovides reinforcement during systole.

Additional support for this idea can be found in published anecdotalreports of documented hemodynamic deterioration in patients in whomcardiomyostimulators malfunctioned and ceased to provide stimulation tothe latissimus dorsi wrap. This further suggests that the systolicassistance mechanism may provide increased benefit compared to a passivegirdle alone.

Despite the prevailing sentiment that stimulated latissimus dorsi wrapsshould be more beneficial than non-stimulated wraps, the manner in whichdynamic cardiomyoplasty has been executed clinically has limited itsclinical success and therefore its acceptance. The underlying mechanismsof dynamic cardiomyoplasty have been the focus of substantialinvestigation.

Preservation of the latissimus dorsi as a power source has also been anissue. Because of muscle atrophy and fibrosis, the amount of squeezingpower that is available has not been sustainable. Ischemia, especiallyto the distal portion of the muscle whose blood supply was interruptedby surgical dissection, has been considered to be a major cause. Inaddition, some have speculated that damage to the thoracodorsal nerveduring the procedure and as a result of the relocation of the muscle isa cause of loss of contractility of the muscle. Another possible problemis the unnatural configuration in which the muscle is forced to operate.The preloads and afterloads against which the muscle works are clearlyaltered from those of in situ latissimus dorsi.

The complexity and invasiveness of the dynamic cardiomyoplasty surgicalprocedure has been implicated as well. Even if the muscle were to remainviable in the long term, there are some physical limitations to itsability to provide the systolic assistance that was once the hope ofdynamic cardiomyoplasty. Cho et al. (1994) published a study in whichthree-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging (3-D MRI) reconstructionwas used to analyze experimental dynamic cardiomyoplasty. The authorsfound that muscle wrap stimulation brought about considerabletranslation of the heart in the plane of the short axis of the leftventricle and rotation about the long axis. Little short-axis or radialsqueeze was seen. However, long-axis compression was observed. Thislong-axis compression was confirmed in a similar study published byPusca et al. (1998). This suggests that the muscle power provided by thelatissimus dorsi is not channeled very efficiently into systolicassistance.

One observation by Hayward is especially noteworthy. The authorsuggested that the contractile properties of the distal portion of thelatissimus dorsi muscle in dynamic cardiomyoplasty degenerates the most.This is attributed to ischemia and the use of the muscle in aninefficient configuration. Yet, this is the portion of the muscle thatis in contact with and expected to squeeze the heart. The proximalportion of the muscle, which is better perfused and oriented in a morelinear, efficient, and natural configuration, does not contact with theheart. As such, stimulation of the muscle is likely to result in morecontraction of the proximal portion of the muscle, the portion that doesnot squeeze the heart. Contraction of this portion of the muscle causesthe heart to translate and rotate as observed experimentally by Cho.Because the heart is attached to the great vessels at its superior end,it would be expected to behave as if it were attached to a pivot at thispoint. Thus, any lateral force or moment applied to the heart shouldresult in lateral translation and rotation. However, in thissuperior-pivot hypothesis, there should be less freedom to translatevertically. Therefore, any vertical force applied to the heart wouldlikely cause longitudinal compression rather than translation. Thus, itis not surprising that stimulation of the muscle results in moretranslation, rotation, and lifting of the entire heart.

Even if the distal portion of the latissimus dorsi muscle remainsviable, there may be a physical limit to how much systolic hemodynamicbenefit it can provide. The overall volume of the left ventricle is moresensitive to changes in its short-axis dimension, i.e., its diameter,than its long-axis dimension, i.e., its length. For example, the volumeof a cylinder is proportional to its length and to the square of itsdiameter. It would thus be expected that the greatest change in volumecould be brought about by a change in the diameter of the ventricle.Skeletal muscle such as the latissimus dorsi is capable of shorteningless than 15% over its length. Assuming that the muscle is adhered tothe epicardium, the circumference of the heart would only be capable ofshortening 15%. For approximation purposes, the left ventricle can betreated as a cylinder. If the circumference of a cylinder of 5-cmdiameter shortens by 15%, then the volume of the cylinder changes byapproximately 28%. It is interesting to note that this number isconsistent with the maximum ejection fractions that have been achievedclinically and experimentally. A device that does not have thelimitation of 15% stretch or shortening might be able to overcome thisejection-fraction limitation and provide more hemodynamic improvement,particularly in cardiac output. Poor increases in ejection fraction andcardiac output have been cited as a shortcoming of the dynamiccardiomyoplasty procedure.

Another limitation of dynamic cardiomyoplasty is the potential mismatchbetween the orientation of the direction of shortening of the latissimusdorsi muscle fibers and that of the epicardium. The principal directionof shortening corresponds to the direction of muscle fiber orientationof each. Although the myocardial muscle fiber orientation varies in theleft ventricle, the principal direction of shortening has been reportedto follow the epicardial muscle fiber orientation, which follows aleft-handed helical orientation from the apex to the base of thechamber. If it is assumed that the latissimus dorsi becomes adhered tothe epicardial surface of the heart, then any misalignment between themuscle fibers would result in inefficiency of energy transfer. Eachmuscle shortens and stretches somewhat across the “grain” or fiberdirection of the other. To compound matters, Strumpf et al. (1993)report a significant increase in the stiffness of passive skeletalmuscle in the cross-fiber direction. As a result, the muscle wrap maylimit the extent of myocardial lengthening and shortening, and thuslimit cardiac function.

An additional source of drag may stem from the inertia added by themuscle itself. It is estimated that an adult latissimus dorsi muscleweighs roughly 600 grams. This additional weight adds considerableinertia to the heart. This may be responsible for the reportedimpairment of cardiac function immediately following the application ofthe muscle by Corin et al. (1992), Cheng et al. (1992), and as suggestedby Vaynblat et al. (1997).

Experimentally, passive, unstimulated latissimus dorsi cardiomyoplastywraps appeared to be the best at attenuating remodeling and heartfailure. However, in a clinical setting, the surgery required to dissectand attach the muscle around the heart is very extensive and traumatic.Even if such a therapy were proven clinically efficacious, this factorlimits its potential acceptance.

Accordingly, there is still a need in the art for a prosthetic elasticwrap that does not foreshorten in the direction perpendicular to theprimary direction of ventricular expansion, and that reduces wall stressby maintaining compressive contact over a significant portion of thecardiac cycle. Additionally, there is a need for a device that aids inpreventing, in addition to treating, heart failure after acutemyocardial infarction through attenuation of the remodeling process.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Accordingly, it is a principal object and advantage of the presentinvention to overcome some or all of the aforementioned disadvantages.One aspect of the present invention comprises a cardiac harness fortreating or preventing congestive heart failure. The harness comprises aplurality of interconnected elastic bending hinges, each of which has acentral portion connected on opposite sides to respective arm portions.The arm portions interact with the central portion in response todeflection of the arm portions to create a bending moment in the hingeto store potential energy.

In certain embodiments, the cardiac harness comprises bending hingesthat are substantially U-shaped, V-shaped, square-wave-shaped,teardrop-shaped, or keyhole-shaped. Advantageously, at least one of thebending hinges from a first row is connected to another of the bendinghinges from a second row.

In some preferred embodiments, the bending hinges comprise at least onestrand of Nitinol. The strand(s) can comprise a wire or a ribbon.

In some embodiments, the cardiac harness further comprises a powersource that supplies energy to the harness, causing the harness tocontract. That power source may deliver electrical energy to at leastone of the bending hinges, causing at least one of the bending hinges toproduce a bending moment. Alternatively, the power source may delivermechanical energy to the cardiac harness, such as through a cable.Advantageously, the power source is programmable via transcutaneousradiofrequency signals, and can be rechargeable via transcutaneouselectromagnetic coupling, and/or transcutaneous inductive fieldcoupling.

In another aspect of the invention, the cardiac harness has a pluralityof spring elements, and the harness is adapted to be placed around atleast a cardiac base. The spring elements interact such that the harnessexpands and contracts in a substantially transverse dimension of theharness in the region of the cardiac base in response to the mechanicalcardiac cycle, without substantial expansion or contraction in thelongitudinal dimension of the harness in the region of the cardiac base.

In another aspect of the invention, the cardiac harness is adapted to beplaced around at least a cardiac apex. The spring elements interact suchthat the harness expands and contracts in a substantially longitudinaldimension of the harness in the region of the cardiac apex in responseto the mechanical cardiac cycle, without substantial expansion orcontraction in the transverse dimension of the harness in the region ofthe cardiac apex.

Another aspect of the invention includes at least one elongate stripsized to fit around a base of a ventricle, such that the strip extendssubstantially transverse to the longitudinal axis of the heart. Thestrip comprises at least one spring element configured to cause thestrip to provide force against the base of the ventricle in asubstantially transverse direction without substantial force in alongitudinal direction. The strip can comprise at least one undulatingstrand.

In some embodiments, the spring element comprises a central portion andtwo arm portions.

In another aspect, the harness of the disclosed embodiments can treat orprevent congestive heart failure in a heart having a ventricle thatchanges sphericity in response to diastolic filling. The harnesscomprises a plurality of interconnected spring elements, limitingdiastolic distention of the ventricle to a degree of expansion withoutsubstantially altering naturally occurring changes in the sphericity ofthe ventricle through the same degree of expansion caused by diastolicfilling of the heart. Alternatively, the harness can limit diastolicdistention of the ventricle to a degree of expansion while substantiallydecreasing the magnitude of a naturally occurring increase in thesphericity of the ventricle through the same degree of expansion causedby diastolic filling.

In another aspect of the invention, the harness comprises a series ofinterconnected spring elements, each spring element comprising a centralportion and a pair of arm portions extending along respective paths thatoriginate at respective sides of the central portion and converge towardeach other along at least a portion of the paths as the paths extendaway from the central portion.

In a further aspect, the harness comprises first and second strands ofmaterial, each strand having a plurality of hinges. Each of the hingesis formed by a pair of arm portions extending from a central portion,and each hinge within the plurality of hinges of the first strand hasboth arm portions disposed within a hinge of the second strand, betweenthe arm portions of the hinge of the second strand. In some embodiments,at least one of the strands comprises a band.

Also disclosed is a method of assembling a cardiac harness, comprisingproviding a plurality of rings, each of the rings having a series ofperiodic undulations, each of the rings being unattached to other of therings, and interconnecting the rings by interleaving the undulationswithout interrupting continuity of the rings.

In certain embodiments, the cardiac harness comprises interconnectedstrands of material. The harness also has at least one pad having amarginal edge which is oriented for placement in proximity to at leastone coronary artery, so as to reduce compression of the artery by theharness. In further embodiments, the harness comprises interconnectedstrands of material which traverse an exterior surface of a ventricle ofthe heart, without traversing a substantial portion of the length of atleast one of the following coronary arteries: the left anteriordescending artery, the right coronary artery, the left circumflexartery, the posterior descending artery, and the obtuse marginal artery.And in some embodiments, the harness comprises a support member whichsupports a portion of the strands, the member having side portionsdisposed on opposite sides of the at least one coronary artery.

Also disclosed is an apparatus for delivering a cardiac harness havingside portions and an apex portion. The apparatus comprises a catheterbody having a distal end portion, configured to retain the harness in asubstantially inverted condition with an interior side of the harnessfacing outward away from a ventricle and an exterior side facing inwardtoward the ventricle. The apparatus further comprises an activationmember which is movable-distally relative to the catheter body. The apexportion of the harness is releasably connected to the catheter body. Theactivation member drives the side portions of the harness distally andoutwardly relative to the apex portion such that the harness expandscircumferentially. The harness thereby everts to at least partiallysurround the ventricle, with the interior side of the harness facinginward toward the ventricle and the exterior side facing away from theventricle. In some embodiments, the distal end portion comprises asuction cup.

Another aspect of the invention includes a method of delivering acardiac harness onto a heart. The method comprises providing a catheterhaving an inverted harness mounted on a distal end portion of thecatheter, inserting the catheter into a thorax such that an apex portionof the inverted harness is proximate to the apex of a ventricle, andeverting side portions of the harness while the apex portion of theharness remains positioned proximate to an apex of the ventricle.

Also disclosed is a method of manufacturing a cardiac harness. Themethod comprises forming an elongate member having undulations from asheet of material. In a preferred arrangement, forming the elongatemember comprises forming the undulations in a plane substantiallyparallel to the sheet of material. In some embodiments, forming theelongate member comprises cutting the elongate member on a flat surface,and in certain arrangements, the method further comprises annealing thematerial with the undulations oriented at a substantial angle relativeto the plane.

Further features and advantages of the present invention will becomeapparent to one of skill in the art in view of the Detailed Descriptionof the Preferred Embodiments which follows, when considered togetherwith the attached drawings and claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of the mammalian heart, with the cardiacharness in place on the heart.

FIG. 2A-2C illustrate an elastic bending hinge, both in a relaxedposition and under tension.

FIG. 3 illustrates V-shaped bending hinges.

FIG. 4 illustrates U-shaped bending hinges.

FIG. 5 illustrates square-wave-shaped bending hinges.

FIG. 6 illustrates teardrop-shaped bending hinges.

FIG. 7 illustrates keyhole-shaped bending hinges.

FIG. 8A-8E illustrate various types of interconnections between stripsor rows of bending hinges.

FIG. 9A-9C illustrate the principle of decoupling of longitudinalexpansion from transverse expansion of bending hinges.

FIG. 10A-10B illustrate interlocking of rows of bending hinges.

FIG. 11A-11B illustrate interweaving of rows of bending hinges.

FIG. 12 is a schematic illustration of the diameter and lengthdimensions of the cardiac wall.

FIG. 13 is a graph of the sphericity-versus-volume relationship of alatex bladder: alone, in conjunction with application of the cardiacharness, and in conjunction with application of a polyester knit sock.

FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram of the cardiac harness in place on theheart, with stiffer, thicker hinges covering the left ventricle than theright ventricle.

FIG. 15 is a schematic diagram of the cardiac harness applied only tothe left ventricle.

FIG. 16A-16B demonstrate application of two protecting strips adjacentto a coronary artery, deep to the cardiac harness and superficial to theepicardium.

FIG. 17 is a schematic diagram of a wire frame attached to the cardiacharness and surrounding a coronary artery.

FIG. 18A-18B are schematic illustrations of a wrap-around embodiment ofthe cardiac harness, with a fastening strip applied to the leading edgeof the cardiac harness.

FIG. 19 is a schematic cross-sectional view of the human thorax with acardiac harness delivery device inserted through an intercostal spaceand contacting the heart.

FIG. 20A-20B are cross-sectional elevational side views of a cardiacharness delivery device.

FIG. 21-25 are schematic illustrations of progressive steps in theapplication of the cardiac harness to a heart, utilizing the cardiacharness delivery device.

FIG. 26A-26D are schematic illustrations of a “flower petal” embodimentof the cardiac delivery device.

FIG. 27A-27B are schematic illustrations of sharp anchors extending fromthe bending hinges of the cardiac harness into the myocardium (heartmuscle).

FIG. 28 is a side view illustration of a bent-body embodiment of thecardiac delivery device, proximate to a human heart.

FIG. 29 is a side view illustration of a straight-body embodiment of thecardiac delivery device, proximate to a human heart.

FIG. 30-31 show progressive steps in the placement of the cardiacharness on a human heart, utilizing the cardiac delivery device.

FIG. 32 is a schematic illustration of a cardiac harness applied to thehuman heart, with direct application of electrical current to thecardiac harness.

FIG. 33-34 are schematic illustrations of the cardiac harness in placeon the human heart, together with an actuating device and cable forapplication of mechanical force to the cardiac harness.

FIG. 35 a is a schematic top view of a ring of hinges after being cutfrom a sheet of material.

FIG. 35 b is a schematic side view of a ring of hinges after being cutfrom a sheet of material.

FIG. 36 a is a schematic top view of a ring of hinges after beingtwisted into a beveled configuration.

FIG. 36 b is a schematic side view of a ring of hinges after beingtwisted into a beveled configuration.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The preferred embodiment comprises an apparatus and method for treatingestablished congestive heart failure (“CHF”), as well as for preventingits onset after acute myocardial infarction. Although reference isfrequently made throughout this discussion to CHF caused by acutemyocardial infarction, the cardiac harness of the disclosed embodimentscan be used to treat CHF caused by forward-pump failure from anydisease, such as idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophiccardiomyopathy, and viral cardiomyopathy. The harness acts by theapplication of a elastic compressive reinforcement on the left ventricleto reduce deleterious and excessive wall tension aid to resist shapechange of the left ventricle during diastole. Use of this harness canattenuate and potentially reverse the remodeling process that occurs inthe left and/or right ventricle following myocardial infarction.

The harness applies compressive reinforcement around the left ventricleover a significant portion of the cardiac cycle while minimizing changeto the shape of a ventricle and heart. Rather than imposing a dimensionbeyond which the heart cannot expand, the preferred embodiment attemptsto set no distinct limit to end-diastolic volume. Instead, the apparatusof the preferred embodiment follows the contour of the epicardium andcontinuously applies a gentle resistance to wall stretch. This avoidsthe potential to create dangerous restrictive and constrictiveconditions, similar to those seen in restrictive cardiomyopathy,constrictive pericarditis, and cardiac tamponade.

A great advantage of the harness of the disclosed embodiments is itselasticity. Elasticity refers to the ability of a material or object todeform and recover its shape when a load is first applied and thenremoved from it. The greater the deformation from which it can recover,the greater is the elasticity of the material or object. Elasticityallows the cardiac harness to conform and apply pressure to the heart asit fills and empties. Elasticity of the harness is achieved by the useof hinges, which can be U-shaped, that bend elastically under load.These hinges can be arrayed or networked in various ways to impart adesired amount of support in a desired orientation, at a desiredlocation. Another advantageous aspect of the cardiac harness is that thehinges are arranged so as to minimize or avoid foreshortening,especially in the longitudinal direction during circumferentialexpansion. This allows the device to reinforce the heart withoutnecessarily altering the heart's sphericity to a great degree.

In addition to providing passive elastic support of the heart, thedevice can also provide an interface to the heart that allows theapplication of noncardiac power to assist systolic ventricular function.

A preferred embodiment comprises an array of connected hinge elementsthat are configured to be in compressive contact with the leftventricle. In another preferred arrangement, the connected hingeelements are in contact with the right ventricle or with bothventricles. The array of hinge elements provide selective elasticresistance to stretch during diastole and contractile augmentationduring systole. Typically, elastic materials resist deformation with aforce that increases with increasing deformation. This force is storedin the material and is released during the unloading of the material.Because wall stress in the left ventricle is thought to be greatest inthe circumferential direction, the hinges are predominantly aligned toact in this direction, although it may be desirable to have some elasticsupport in the longitudinal direction, or some other direction, as well.

FIG. 1 illustrates a mammalian heart 2 with the cardiac harness 4applied to it. In this illustration, the cardiac harness surrounds bothventricles, from apex to base. Note that the hinges are relatively smallin this illustrated embodiment, but in other preferred embodiments, thehinges can be larger.

Each hinge 6 provides unidirectional elasticity, in that it acts in onedirection and does not provide much elasticity in the directionperpendicular to that direction. FIGS. 2 a-2 c illustrate a preferredembodiment of the elastic hinge. FIG. 2 a illustrates how the hinge 6can be generally U-shaped with a central portion 8 that has at least oneinner and outer radius of curvature, and two arms 10 extending from thecentral portion 8. The two arms 10 are aligned to be roughlyperpendicular to the primary direction of elasticity. The components ofthe hinge 6 lie flat in a plane parallel to the surface of theepicardium. Thus, when the ventricle dilates in congestive failure, theends of the arms 10 are pulled away from each other, as illustrated inFIG. 2 b. This imposes a bending moment on the central portion 8.Mechanically, this creates a state in which there is compression on theoutside of the bend 12 and tension on the inside of the bend 14 in thecentral portion 8 of the hinge 6. These compressive 12 and tensile 14regions are separated by a neutral axis. The stresses can be distributeddifferently by varying the shape of the central portion 8. For example,as illustrated in FIGS. 3-7, the hinges 6 can be V-shaped (FIG. 3),U-shaped (FIG. 4), square-wave-shaped (FIG. 5), teardrop-shaped (FIG.6), or keyhole-shaped (FIG. 7). The deformation and bearing of the loadin the hinge structure 6 is taken up primarily by the bending of thecentral portion 8 and the arms 10. Little load is carried in puretension parallel to the wire direction.

An advantageous feature is that the hinges 6 are designed such that theelastic limit or yield point of their material is not exceeded duringuse. In other words, the hinges 6 operate in their elastic range so thatthey can recover to their original, stress-free configuration when theyare unloaded. In addition, an important aspect to the use of a harness 4comprised of elastic hinges 6 is that the harness 4 is sized such thatit remains in elastic, compressive contact with the heart 2.

Another advantageous characteristic of the elastic bending hinges 6 isthat they apply increasing resistive force with increasing bending. Themore they are stretched, the greater force with which they resist.Overall, a harness 4 constructed of these hinges 6 will behave in asimilar fashion. A goal of cardiac or left-ventricular harnessingaccording to the preferred embodiment is to apply a gentle compressivepressure against the surface of the epicardium of the heart 2. As theleft ventricular wall distends locally or globally, it will be met withincreasing pressure by the hinges 6, locally or globally. Increasedpressure exerted by the harness 4 lowers wall stress within the leftventricle and thus may prevent further infarct expansion, globaldilatation, and remodeling. The cardiac harness 4 according to thepreferred embodiment mechanically resists size and shape changes thattake place in the heart 2 after an acute myocardial infarction. Inaddition, the harness 4 may be capable of reversing the remodelingprocess that occurs post-infarction. If reverse remodeling occurs, andthe left ventricular shape and size consequently decrease back towardnormal, then resistive pressure from the harness 4 will commensuratelydecrease, as well.

One of the most effective means of limiting infarct expansion andpreventing the onset of the remodeling process after an acute myocardialinfarction is revascularization of infarcted and jeopardized myocardium.Most often this is achieved by coronary artery bypass grafting. Theapplication of a cardiac harness according to the preferred embodimentduring bypass grafting can provide further benefit. The myocardialsparing effect of the harness, by decreasing wall tension, has beenshown experimentally to reduce myocardial energy consumption andtherefore reduce myocardial oxygen demand. If a bypass graft shouldbecome stenosed over time and cause the myocardium to become ischemic,the harness may attenuate any remodeling that might result. In additionto being an accompaniment to coronary artery bypass grafting,application of the cardiac harness might occur at the time of aortic ormitral valve repair or replacement surgeries.

Hinges 6 can be disposed in helical elements, also referred to in thisdiscussion as rings 80, rows, or strips 20, around the circumference ofthe left ventricle or the heart. Strips 20 can contain one or moreconnected hinges 6. Hinges 6 in a strip 20 are oriented to have the sameaxis of elasticity as other hinges 6 in a strip 20. Strips 20 can bejoined or they can be independent of one another. As shown in FIGS. 8a-8 e, strips 20 of hinges 6 can be joined by interconnecting elements16 in a variety of ways. For example, an interconnecting element 16 canjoin the arm portion of one hinge 6 within a first strip 20 to a centralportion 8 of a hinge 6 in a second strip 20.

In FIG. 8 b another configuration is illustrated. The central portion ofa hinge 6 within a first strip 20 is joined to the central portion ofanother hinge 6 in a second strip 20, by an interconnecting element 16.As illustrated in FIG. 8 c, the interconnecting element 16 can be angledto provide a spring-like mechanism between strips 20. FIG. 8 d showsanother configuration of the interconnecting element 16, providingfirmer support between hinges 6 in different rows 20.

Joined strips 20 can be linked by longitudinally oriented hinges 18which act as interconnections between strips 20. These longitudinallyoriented hinges 18 provide elastic recoil in the longitudinal direction,while the strips 20 of hinges 6 provide the usual elasticity in thetransverse direction. This arrangement imparts a more isotropic elasticstructure than the previously described embodiments.

An advantageous feature of the preferred embodiment is the decoupling ofthe action of the harness in the circumferential or transverse dimensionfrom the longitudinal direction. This decoupling is accomplished byallowing a hinge 6 to stretch or bend circumferentially, ortransversely, without pulling much longitudinally on the adjacenthinges. This principal is illustrated in FIGS. 9 a-9 c. The relaxed, orend-systolic, configuration of the rows or strips 20 of hinges 6 isshown in FIG. 9 a. There is considerable longitudinal overlap betweenthe hinges 6 from one strip to another. In FIG. 9 b, one can see that bypulling the strips apart in the longitudinal direction (along the Yaxis), there is a little or no foreshortening of the strips 20 of hinges6 in the transverse direction (i.e., along the X axis). This lack offoreshortening in the X axis is due to the fact that pulling apart thestrips 20 of hinges 6 in the Y direction produces very littlecompression of the hinges 6.

FIG. 9 c illustrates a corollary property of the hinges 6, most readilyseen when the cardiac harness 4 is applied to a live heart 2: Thestretching of the strips 20 of hinges 6 in the transverse (X-axis)direction produces very little or no foreshortening in the longitudinal(Y-axis) direction. In the region of the cardiac base, which is close tothe outflow (aortic and pulmonic) valves, it is advantageous to have therows 20 of hinges 6 expanding and contracting in the circumferential ortransverse direction (i.e., along the X axis) while little or noforeshortening in the longitudinal direction (i.e., along the Y axis)occurs. This phenomenon is illustrated in FIG. 9 c. Closer to thecardiac apex, it may be more advantageous to have the rows or strips 20of hinges 6 move apart in the longitudinal direction (i.e., along the Yaxis) while there is very little or no foreshortening in thecircumferential or transverse direction (i.e., along the X axis). Thisphenomenon is illustrated in FIG. 9 b.

An additional way that the longitudinal expansion of the harness can bedecoupled from the transverse expansion of the harness is through theuse of elastically recoiling interconnecting elements 16, as illustratedin FIGS. 8 a and 8 c. Additionally, having interconnecting hinges 18, asillustrated in FIG. 8 e, is an additional way of decoupling thelongitudinal from transverse expansion and contraction of the hinges 6within the harness 4.

Alternatively, as illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11, the rows or strips 20of hinges 6 can be interlocked (FIGS. 10 a and 10 b) or interwoven(FIGS. 11 a and 11 b). To interlock strips 20 of hinges 6, the centralportion 8 of a hinge 6 from a first row, or strip 20, is placed betweenthe arms 10 of a hinge from a second row. This placement of a “hingewithin a hinge” occurs for one or more hinges 6 in a first strip 20,relative to the hinges in a second strip. To interweave strips 20 ofhinges 6, as illustrated in FIGS. 11 a and 11 b, the strips 20 areconfigured such that one arm 10 of a first hinge 6 from a first strip 20lies under the central portion 8 of a second hinge from a second strip,while the other arm 10 of the first hinge 6 lies over the centralportion 8 of the second hinge from the second strip.

Another embodiment comprises a variable hinge network (not illustrated).In this network, hinges within a strip vary in height. Thus, a shorthinge may be followed by a tall hinge, followed by a short hinge, and soon within a strip. This variable hinge network provides the capabilityto tailor the stiffness of the harness such that the stiffness varieswith the degree of stretch. For example, at some first threshold ofdistension, the tall hinges deform, and at some higher threshold ofdistension, the shorter hinges, which are stiffer, begin to deform. Thisarrangement can advantageously provide a pressure-versus-diameter curvefor the harness that exhibits two distinct stiffness peaks at differentdiameters—with diameter corresponding to ventricular wall stretch ordegree of distension.

An important difference between the decoupled hinge harness constructionof the preferred embodiment and a knitted fabric harness, or cardiac“sock,” is the hinge harness's ability to closely track changes insphericity of the underlying heart, whether the heart is healthy ordiseased. This has been demonstrated experimentally by using an inflatedlatex bladder, which simulates a heart in its expansion and contraction.First, relative changes in sphericity of the bladder were measured. Notethat sphericity is defined as diameter (D) divided by length (L):

${sphericity} = \frac{diameter}{length}$

This relationship is illustrated in FIG. 12, which shows the diameter(D) of the heart in the transverse dimension and the length (L) of theheart in the longitudinal direction. The results of this experiment areillustrated in FIG. 13. When the bladder was inflated alone (i.e.,without the presence of a harness), it generated asphericity-versus-volume curve that is illustrated as the middle curvein FIG. 13. When a polyester knit “sock” was applied to the bladder,there was a great increase in sphericity as the volume of the bladderincreased, as illustrated by the top curve of FIG. 13. In contrast, whenthe elastic hinge harness 4 of the preferred embodiment was applied tothe bladder, the sphericity-versus-volume curve more closely matchedthat of the unencumbered bladder alone. The elastic hinge harnesssphericity curve is illustrated as the bottom curve in FIG. 13. Thus,the elastic hinge harness of the preferred embodiment closely trackschanges in sphericity over a range of volumes of the underlyingstructure, in this case a latex bladder. The nonforeshortening elastichinge harness 4 had little impact on the sphericity index as bladdervolume increased. In fact, the sphericity index values were slightlylower than for the bladder alone. In contrast, the presence of theknitted sock significantly increased the sphericity of the bladder asits volume was increased. This demonstrates the potential importance ofthe nonforeshortening elastic feature of the harness with respect to itsapplication to the human heart. The harness has the ability either (1)to “track” (i.e., minimally alter) changes in sphericity of one or bothventricles throughout systole and diastole; or (2) to progressivelydecrease the sphericity index of the heart, relative to an unencumberedheart (i.e., without the harness), as diastole proceeds, whether theheart is healthy or in congestive failure.

The hinges 6 can be made of a variety of materials, including metals,polymers, composites, ceramics, and biologic tissue. Specific materialsinclude stainless steel, Elgiloy, titanium, tantalum, Nitinol, ePTFE,collagen, nylon, polyester, and urethane. Advantageously, the hinges aremade from a metal, particularly Nitinol, because metals have a higherYoung's modulus or stiffness, than polymers or tissue. This allows lessmass and volume of material to be used to achieve the same mechanicalreinforcing strength. Prosthetic materials that are directly applied tothe epicardium, especially if there is some relative movement betweenthe epicardium and the material, can induce fibrosis, which is marked bycollagen deposition leading to scarring. Consequently, an implant withless surface area in contact with the epicardium tends to generate lessfibrosis on the surface of the heart. Excessive fibrosis can lead to aconstrictive pericarditis and, ultimately, to elevated venous pressureswith disastrous consequences.

Nitinol is especially suitable for the construction of the harness 4. Ithas the advantageous capability of being able to remain elastic over agreat range of strain, up to 4%, which is greater than other metals. Itgenerates a relatively benign foreign body response from tissue, and itis relatively magnetic-resonance-imaging-compatible, as it is not highlyferromagnetic. Nitinol is also corrosion- and fatigue-resistant. Inaddition, metal such as Nitinol are more creep-resistant than polymericor tissue based materials. In a passive elastic harness application,hinge 6 would be formed in an austenitic state at body temperature whenno load is applied and the material is in a stress-free state. When theharness is placed on the heart, the contact pressure between the harnessand the heart may stress-induce martensite within the otherwiseaustenitic structure.

The hinge elements can be made from wire, or they may be machined fromsheet or tubing material, or a combination of these. In order to makesuch a structure out of Nitinol wire, the wire is wound and constrainedin the desired configuration. It is then annealed at approximately 470°C. for approximately 20 minutes to set the shape. Alternatively, Nitinoltubing can be machined with a laser to create the desired structure.Another alternative is the photochemical etching of sheets of Nitinol.In both of these latter methods, a subsequent annealing can beperformed.

In addition to varying the direction of elastic support, the extent ofsupport or stiffness can be varied as well. Hinges of different shape orof different material dimensions can accomplish this. Because of thedifference in compliance between the left and right ventricles, it canbe desirable to have the left side of the harness stiffer than the rightside. This can be achieved in several ways. A harness structure can beconstructed with stiffer hinges against the surface of the leftventricle than the right, as illustrated in FIG. 14. The hinges coveringthe left ventricle 22 are thicker, smaller, or otherwise stiffer thanthe hinges covering the right ventricle 24. Also shown in FIG. 14 arethe individual strips 20 of hinges, as well as the interventricularseptum 25, between left ventricle (LV) and right ventricle (RV).

In a preferred arrangement, a wire or plastic frame comprising twostruts (not illustrated) can be integrated with the harness 4. The frameacts similarly to a clothespin, in that it exerts a clamping pressurealong vectors 180 degrees apart, limiting the amount the ventricle(s)are allowed to distend. The amount of pressure exerted by the frame canbe adjusted by making the frame larger or smaller, or thicker orthinner. The harness can also feature more than one frame. The harness'shinges 6 positioned between the wire frames, or between struts offrames, can be of varying thickness or size to apply varying stiffnessand to allow for more or less ventricular distension.

In another embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 15, the cardiac harness maybe selectively applied to only the left ventricle (or the rightventricle), depending on which side has failed. In this illustration,the cardiac harness is applied to the left ventricle because the leftventricle fails far more often than the right ventricle. The harness maybe anchored to the left ventricle in a variety of ways, including havinganchoring struts that extend into the interventricular septum 25, asshown in FIG. 15.

Advantageously, most or all of the surface of the left ventricle iscovered by the harness 4. This ensures maximum reinforcement bothglobally, to attenuate global shape change and dilatation, and locally,to prevent ventricular wall thinning and stretch in an infarcted area.Note that this not to say that the actual surface area of the harness incontact with the epicardium needs to be large.

FIGS. 16 a and 16 b illustrates a protection mechanism for minimizingcompression of one or more coronary arteries 26. To minimize the risk ofischemia, the compression of the harness on an epicardial coronaryartery 26 can be alleviated by placement of protecting strips 28 oneither side of the coronary artery 26. This mechanism lifts the harness4 off of the coronary artery 26. A suitable material for the protectingstrip 26 can be expanded polytetrafluoroethylene ePTFE.

Another approach to minimizing compression of the coronary artery 26 isillustrated in FIG. 17. A wire frame 30 that runs parallel to thecoronary artery 26 can be integrated into the harness 4. The hinges 6can be suspended from the wire frame 30 like curtains on a curtain rod.The hinges 6 extend from one arm of the wire frame 30 to the other overthe surface of the myocardium, between coronary arteries.

Advantageously, the compliance of the elastic harness 4 is in the rangeof compliance of native pericardium or latissimus dorsi muscle wraps.Preferably, the compliance of the harness 4 increases gradually as afunction of stretch. Over the operational range of the harness,compliance should not fall so low that the harness 4 becomesconstrictive. Therefore, the pressure exerted on the heart 2 by theharness 4 preferably does not exceed 10 mm Hg. However, if only the leftventricle is reinforced by the harness 4, then greater pressures arepossible without causing constrictive conditions.

Various designs incorporating decoupled hinges 6 are possible. Thehinges 6 can wrap continuously around both ventricles or just around theleft ventricle or right ventricle. The harness 4 can have a seam forsize adjustment, or it can be of a one-size-fits-all design. A Nitinolharness can be provided presized to fit the dimensions of a patient'sheart. Alternatively, the harness components can be provided in a kitthat a surgeon can custom-assemble in the operating room, based onsizing information gained before or at the time of surgery. A kit canconsist of modular components that can be assembled quickly. The use ofhinge strips 20 that are ring-shaped and of varying diameters andstiffness is one possibility. The surgeon can interlock hinges 6 betweenadjacent hinge strips 20 in order to couple the strips 20, asillustrated in FIG. 10 b. Precise sizing can be facilitated by using abelt buckle or adhesive fastener (e.g., a hook-and-loop fastener, suchas Velcro™) type of design, as illustrated in FIGS. 18 a and 18 b. FIGS.18 a and 18 b illustrate the harness 4 wrapped around the heart 2, witha leading flap 32 that integrates an adhesive strip, such as Velcro™,for securing the harness 4 onto the heart 2. Such a design is notreadily achievable using the knitted sock of previous designs.

Delivery of the harness 4 can be accomplished through conventionalcardiothoracic surgical techniques through a median sternotomy.Alternatively, the harness 4 may be delivered through minimally invasivesurgical access to the thoracic cavity, as illustrated in FIG. 19. Adelivery device 36 may be inserted into the thoracic cavity 34 betweenthe patient's ribs to gain direct access to the heart 2. Preferably,such a minimally invasive procedure is accomplished on a beating heart,without the use of cardiopulmonary bypass. Access to the heart can becreated with conventional surgical approaches. The pericardium may beopened completely, or a small incision can be made in the pericardium(pericardiotomy) to allow the delivery system 36 access to the heart 2.The delivery system 36 of the disclosed embodiments comprises anintegrated unit of several components, as illustrated in FIGS. 20 a and20 b. Preferably, there is a releasable suction device, such as asuction cup 38, at the distal tip of the delivery device 36. Thisnegative pressure suction cup 38 is used to hold the apex of the heart2. Negative pressure can be applied to the cup 38 using a syringe orother vacuum device. A negative pressure lock can be achieved through aone-way valve, stopcock, or a tubing clamp. The suction cup 38,advantageously formed of a biocompatible material, is preferably stiffto prevent any negative pressure loss through heart manipulation. thisprovides traction by which the harness 4 can be pushed forward onto theheart 2. In addition, the suction cup 38 can be used to lift the heart 2to facilitate advancement of the harness 4 or allow visualization andsurgical manipulation of the posterior side of the heart 2. After securepurchase of the apex of the heart 2 is achieved, the harness 4, which iscollapsed within the body 46 of the delivery device 36, is advanceddistally toward the heart 2 by actuating fingers 40. The harness 4 canbe inverted (i.e., turned inside-out) ahead of time, to allow it tounroll, or evert as it advances over the surface of the heart 2. In thisdiscussion, the term “evert” means turning right-side-in, i.e.,reversing an inverting process. After the harness 4 is advanced intoplace, the suction is released and the delivery system 36 is releasedfrom the harness 4 and heart 2.

FIGS. 21-25 illustrate the application of the cardiac harness 4 to theheart 2 in various stages. FIG. 21 shows the delivery device, which maybe a catheter in one embodiment, comprising a body 46 and a handle 44.The catheter body 46 is advanced through the skin 48 of the patient. Thesuction 38 moves in proximity to the apex 42 of the heart 2. The harness4 is inverted (i.e., turned inside out) and is collapsed within the body46 of the delivery device.

FIG. 22 illustrates engagement of the apex 42 of the heart 2 by thesuction cup 38. Suction may be applied to the apex 42 of the heart 2 bymoving the handle 44 in one or more directions, or by using a syringe orother suction device (not illustrated).

FIG. 23 shows advancement of the harness 4 by the actuating fingers 40within the body 46 of the delivery device. The harness 4 may be advancedover the heart 2 by moving the handle 44 toward the heart 2 relative tothe body 46 of the delivery device.

FIG. 24 shows further advancement and unrolling, or everting, of theharness 4 as the actuating fingers 40 move distally and outwardlyrelative to the delivery device body 46. The suction cup 38 remainsengaged on the heart 2.

FIG. 25 illustrates completion of the placement of the harness 4 on theheart 2. After the harness 4 is in position on the heart 2, the handle44 may be withdrawn from the body 46 of the delivery device, pulling theactuating finger 40 back within the body 46 of the delivery device. Thesuction cup 38 is also released from the heart 2 and harness 4, and thedelivery device is withdrawn from the patient through the skin 48.

FIGS. 26 a-26 d illustrate another embodiment of the delivery device, inwhich the actuating fingers 40 of the device form a loop or “flowerpetal” configuration. The actuating fingers 40 are withdrawn within thebody 46 of the delivery device in FIG. 26 a. FIGS. 26 b and 26 c show aprogressive advancement of the actuating fingers 40 distally from thebody 46 of the delivery device. As the fingers 40 advance, they expandoutwardly into a larger loop or flower petal configuration. FIG. 26 d isan en face view of the delivery device body 46 and theflower-petal-shaped actuating fingers 40.

The harness 4 can be secured in place on the heart 2, using sutures orstaples to prevent it from migrating. Alternatively, the harness 4 canself-anchor to the epicardium to prevent it from migrating. Thisself-anchoring can be accomplished by incorporating inward-facing barbsor anchors 50 in the harness structure 4, as illustrated in FIGS. 27 aand 27 b. The anchors 50 preferably extend from the hinges 6 into thewall of the heart 2.

FIG. 28 shows an alternative embodiment of the delivery device. The body46 of the delivery device is curved to facilitate placement and/ormanipulation of the device by the surgeon. Also illustrated is a syringe52 for injecting fluids or for generating suction on the distal suctioncup 38 to secure the suction cup 38 to the apex 42 of the heart 2. Alsoillustrated is the harness 4 that is partially withdrawn within the body46 of the delivery device.

FIG. 29 shows an alternative embodiment of the delivery device. The body46 of the delivery device is straight in this embodiment.

FIG. 30 illustrates advancement of the harness 4 and actuating fingers40 onto the heart 2.

FIG. 31 shows completed placement of the harness 4 onto the heart 2 bythe delivery device. Note that the actuating fingers 40 form a loop,and, in some embodiments, the actuating fingers 40 are made of flexiblematerial to form flexible straps or bands.

The harness 4 not only has the capability of acting as a passiverestraint around the heart, but may also be actively powered to providecontractile assistance during systole. This may be done by theapplication of electrical or mechanical power to the harness 4.

If electrical current or heat is applied to the harness 4 in thestressed state, the resistive force generated by the bending deformationincreases. In essence, the harness 4 generates a contractile force whencurrent is applied to the harness 4. Hence, it is possible to activelypower an otherwise passive elastic harness 4 in order to achievesystolic pumping assistance. This effect is additive in the myocardialsparing benefit that the harness 4 provides.

During systole and perhaps at end-diastole, current can be applied tothe harness 4 to make it contract and thus assist in left ventricularcontraction. Such a mechanism is illustrated in FIG. 32. The harness 4surrounds the heart 2. An electrical wire 60 extends from an internalpower supply 54 to the harness 4.

In this context, the internal power supply 54 is a device that supplieselectrical energy to the harness 4. It may also comprise a battery and,in some embodiments, a radiofrequency transducer for receiving and/ortransmitting radiofrequency signals to and from an externalradiofrequency (“RF”) transducer 56 which may send and/or receive RFsignals from the internal power supply 54. Thus, the external RFtransducer 56 may recharge a battery within the internal power supply54. Also, the external RF transducer 56 may be used to send programinformation from the external RF transducer 56 to the internal powersupply 54, or vice versa, regarding electromechanical sensing and/orpacing information, cardiac rhythm, degree of ventricular or harnesscontractility, heart-rate information, or the like. Alternatively, theexternal RF transducer 56 may supply electrical power through inductivefield coupling between the external RF transducer 56 and the internalpower supply 54.

In some embodiments, an external power supply 58 can be used, which maybe a battery pack in various preferred arrangements. The external powersupply 58 may supply current to the external RF transducer 56, which mayin turn supply electrical energy to the internal power supply 54 throughinductive field coupling. The technology for this inductive fieldcoupling, including electronic programming and power transmissionthrough RF inductive coupling, has been developed and is employed in,for example, cardiac pacemakers, automatic internal cardiacdefibrillators, deep brain stimulators, and left ventricular assistdevices.

The power requirement of the device of the disclosed embodiments issignificantly lower than that of conventional left ventricular assistdevice because the native heart in the present application continues todo some work. The powered harness 4 merely augments native cardiaccontractions.

Rather than a Nitinol harness 4 providing active systolic assistance,variable current can be applied to the Nitinol to simply vary theharness's 4 passive stiffness. As such, power is not used to actively“squeeze” the heart 2 during systole. The harness 4 is instead a passiveelastic harness with adjustable compliance. A physician can adjust thepower to a harness 4 to vary the amount of resistive pressure it exertson the left ventricle during both systole and diastole. The passivestiffness of the harness 4 can be set to change throughout the cardiaccycle, or it can be adjusted to maintain constant levels. For example,when the cardiac harness 4 is placed on the heart 2, the physician canset the harness 4 to a certain degree of stiffness. Depending on how thepatient responds, the physician can then increase or decrease stiffnessby varying the electrical stimulating parameters to the harness 4.Adjustment and stimulation of the harness 4 can be accomplished throughan implantable pacemaker-like box, the internal power supply 54, that iselectrically connected to the harness 4 through at least one wire 60.This is one embodiment of the configuration illustrated in FIG. 32.

The harness 4 may be integrated with an implantable pacemaker or ainternal cardiac defibrillator, according to the needs of the patient.

Mechanical power can be applied to the harness 4 through sliding cables70 as illustrated in FIGS. 33 and 34. A cable 70 can extend over thesurface of the harness 4 between two points. The cable 70 is actually aninner sliding element that resides partially within an outer housing 68.Mechanical actuation of the cable 70 by, for example, an actuation box62 causes the two components, illustrated in FIGS. 33 and 34 as struts72 within the harness 4, to slide or otherwise move relative to eachother. If the end 74 of the housing 68 is attached to one strut 72, andthe distal end of the cable 70 is attached to another strut 72, thenactuation of the cable causes the two struts to move closer and/orfarther apart relative to one another, causing the heart to contractand/or expand. If timed with systole, this mechanism providescontractile assistance.

Also illustrated in FIGS. 33 and 34 are the actuation box 62, whichconverts electrical energy to mechanical energy to move the cable 70within the housing 68; a power lead line 64, extending from the internalpower supply 54 to the actuation box 62; and an electrical sensing lead66, which can sense cardiac contractions or cardiac electrical activity,such as an electrocardiographic signal. This sensing is similar to theway in which pacemakers sense cardiac electrical activity, receivinginformation concerning the rate and rhythm of the heartbeat. Alsoillustrated in FIGS. 33 and 34 are the external RF transducer 56 and theexternal power supply 58, as previously described.

FIG. 33 illustrates the struts 72 as unattached to one another, whileFIG. 34 shows the struts 72 attached at a point 76 near the apex of theheart 2. These two different embodiments can confer different mechanicaland hemodynamic advantages upon actuation of the cable 70 and consequentcontraction and expansion of the heart 2.

FIGS. 35 a-36 b illustrate a method of manufacturing the strips, orrows, of hinges 6. A sheet (or more than one sheet) of Nitinol or othersuitable material is cut to form a single, continuous ring 80 of hinges6. This ring 80 is initially flat after it has been cut from the sheetof material, as shown in FIG. 35 a (top view) and 35 b (side view). Thering 80 is preferably parallel to the surface (e.g., a table or board)on which the ring 80 is formed. The ring is then manipulated to create aband-like configuration, which can be cylindrical or beveled, asillustrated in FIG. 36 a (top view) and 36 b (side view).

Compared to conventional left ventricular assist devices, the harness 4of the disclosed embodiments has many advantages. It can be minimallyinvasively delivered, and it can be permanently implanted without needfor subsequent removal. This allows it to provide incremental therapy asneeded. If necessary, it can be powered to provide contractileassistance. If this is not necessary, the power can be shut off to allowit to act as a passive elastic reinforcement for the failing heart.

In addition, such a system can provide circulatory assistance with afraction of the power demands of a left ventricular assist device. Leftventricular assist devices are estimated to require nearly ten watts ofpower. The heart itself operates at only approximately one watt ofpower. Because a powered harness works with the existing heart, itshould not need nearly the amount of power of a left ventricular assistdevice. In addition, because the harness 4 does not come in directcontact with blood, there is no need to anticoagulate the patient with,for example, warfarin (Coumadin) or heparin. There is also noindependent reason to treat the patient with antiplatelet drugs. Aharness system involves less machinery than a left ventricular assistdevice. This and other attributes impose less detriment to a patient'squality of life. Last, such a system is relatively simple and thereforeless costly than a left ventricular assist device.

Power to actuate the cable 70 can come from an internal or externalsource. An internal source can alternatively be skeletal muscle, such asin situ latissimus dorsi muscle or a mechanical motor. If power isneeded, it can be delivered transcutaneously as described above, usingexisting technology developed by, for example, left-ventricular-assistdevice companies.

Although the present invention has been described in terms of certainpreferred embodiments, other embodiments that are apparent to those ofordinary skill in the art are also within the scope of the invention.Accordingly, the scope of the invention is intended to be defined onlyby reference to the appended claims.

1. A method for attenuating remodeling of a heart, comprising: mountinga cardiac harness on the heart, the cardiac harness applying acompressive force on the heart during at least a portion of a cardiaccycle; decreasing wall stress on the left ventricle by action of thecompressive force of the cardiac harness; and attenuating expansion orremodeling of the heart as the cardiac harness applies compressive forceon the heart during the at least a portion of the cardiac cycle.
 2. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the cardiac harness mechanically resists sizeand shape changes in the heart.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein thecardiac harness mechanically resists size and shape changes in the heartafter an acute myocardial infarction.
 4. The method of claim 1, whereinthe compressive force of the cardiac harness decreases left ventricularsize and reshapes the left ventricle.
 5. The method of claim 4, whereinas the left ventricle decreases in size and reshapes, the compressiveforce of the cardiac harness on the heart automatically decreases. 6.The method of claim 1, wherein the compressive force of the cardiacharness on the heart is less than 10 mm Hg.
 7. The method of claim 1,wherein the compressive force of the cardiac jacket on the heart is inthe range of compressive force of native pericardium.
 8. The method ofclaim 7, wherein the compressive force of the cardiac jacket on theheart is in the range of 3 to 4 mm Hg.
 9. The method of claim 1, whereinthe compressive force on the heart is applied during diastole.
 10. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the compressive force on the heart is appliedduring systole.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the compressive forceon the heart applied by the cardiac harness counteracts paradoxicalbulging of an infarct region occurring in dyskinetic and aneurysmalhearts during systole.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuatesdyssynchrony.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the compressive forceon the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuates hypokinesis. 14.The method of claim 1, wherein the compressive force on the heartapplied by the cardiac harness attenuates akinesis.
 15. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by thecardiac harness attenuates dyskinesis.
 16. The method of claim 1,wherein after an acute myocardial infarction, applying the compressiveforce during diastole and systole.
 17. The method of claim 16, whereinthe compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harnesscounteracts paradoxical bulging of an infarct region occurring indyskinetic and aneurysmal hearts during systole.
 18. The method of claim16, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiacharness attenuates dyssynchrony.
 19. The method of claim 16, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuateshypokinesis.
 20. The method of claim 16, wherein the compressive forceon the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuates akinesis.
 21. Themethod of claim 16, wherein the compressive force on the heart appliedby the cardiac harness attenuates dyskinesis.
 22. The method of claim16, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiacharness attenuates infarct expansion.
 23. The method of claim 1, whereinthe cardiac harness is mounted on a beating heart.
 24. The method ofclaim 23, wherein the cardiac harness is delivered to the heart byminimally invasive access.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein thecardiac harness is delivered to the heart through a small incision inthe pericardium.
 26. The method of claim 1, wherein prior to mountingthe cardiac harness on the heart, performing a coronary artery bypassgrafting procedure on the heart.
 27. The method of claim 1, whereinprior to mounting the cardiac harness on the heart, repairing orreplacing a heart valve.
 28. The method of claim 1, wherein the cardiacharness is integrated with an implantable pacemaker or an implantablecardiac defibrillator.
 29. The method of claim 1, wherein the cardiacharness is mounted during coronary artery bypass grafting.
 30. Themethod of claim 1, wherein after an acute myocardial infarction,performing a coronary artery bypass grafting procedure and mounting thecardiac harness on the heart.
 31. The method of claim 1, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuateshyperkinesis.
 32. The method of claim 1, wherein after an acutemyocardial infarction, mounting the cardiac harness on the heart andperforming a coronary artery bypass procedure.
 33. The method of claim1, wherein after an acute myocardial infarction, performing a coronaryartery bypass grafting procedure, and mounting the cardiac harness,integrated with an implantable pacemaker or a defibrillator, on theheart.
 34. The method of claim 1, wherein a coronary artery bypassgrafting procedure is performed and the mounting of the cardiac harnessincludes integrating a pacemaker or defibrillator with the cardiacharness.
 35. A method for attenuating remodeling of a heart, comprising:after a patient experiences an acute myocardial infarction; mounting acardiac harness on the heart, the cardiac harness applying a compressiveforce on the heart during at least a portion of a cardiac cycle;decreasing wall stress on the left ventricle by action of thecompressive force of the cardiac harness; and attenuating expansion orremodeling of the heart as the cardiac harness applies compressive forceon the heart during the at least a portion of the cardiac cycle.
 36. Themethod of claim 35, wherein the cardiac harness mechanically resistssize and shape changes in the heart.
 37. The method of claim 35, whereinthe compressive force of the cardiac harness decreases left ventricularsize and reshapes the left ventricle.
 38. The method of claim 35,wherein as the left ventricle decreases in size and reshapes, thecompressive force of the cardiac harness on the heart automaticallydecreases.
 39. The method of claim 35, wherein the compressive force ofthe cardiac harness on the heart is less than 10 mm Hg.
 40. The methodof claim 35, wherein the compressive force of the cardiac jacket on theheart is in the range of compressive force of native pericardium. 41.The method of claim 40, wherein the compressive force of the cardiacjacket on the heart is in the range of 3 to 4 mm Hg.
 42. The method ofclaim 35, wherein the compressive force on the heart is applied duringdiastole.
 43. The method of claim 35, wherein the compressive force onthe heart is applied during systole.
 44. The method of claim 35, whereinthe compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harnesscounteracts paradoxical bulging of an infarct region occurring indyskinetic and aneurysmal hearts during systole.
 45. The method of claim35, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiacharness attenuates dyssynchrony.
 46. The method of claim 35, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuateshypokinesis.
 47. The method of claim 35, wherein the compressive forceon the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuates akinesis.
 48. Themethod of claim 35, wherein the compressive force on the heart appliedby the cardiac harness attenuates dyskinesis.
 49. The method of claim35, wherein after the acute myocardial infarction, applying thecompressive force during diastole and systole.
 50. The method of claim49, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiacharness counteracts paradoxical bulging of an infarct region occurringin dyskinetic and aneurysmal hearts during systole.
 51. The method ofclaim 49, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by thecardiac harness attenuates dyssynchrony.
 52. The method of claim 49,wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiacharness attenuates hypokinesis.
 53. The method of claim 49, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuatesakinesis.
 54. The method of claim 49, wherein the compressive force onthe heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuates dyskinesis.
 55. Themethod of claim 49, wherein the compressive force on the heart appliedby the cardiac harness attenuates infarct expansion.
 56. The method ofclaim 35, wherein the cardiac harness is mounted on a beating heart. 57.The method of claim 56, wherein the cardiac harness is delivered to theheart by minimally invasive access.
 58. The method of claim 57, whereinthe cardiac harness is delivered to the heart through a small incisionin the pericardium.
 59. The method of claim 35, wherein prior tomounting the cardiac harness on the heart, performing a coronary arterybypass grafting procedure on the heart.
 60. The method of claim 35,wherein prior to mounting the cardiac harness on the heart, repairing orreplacing a heart valve.
 61. The method of claim 35, wherein the cardiacharness is integrated with an implantable pacemaker or an implantablecardiac defibrillator.
 62. The method of claim 35, wherein the cardiacharness is mounted during coronary artery bypass grafting.
 63. Themethod of claim 35, wherein after the acute myocardial infarction,performing a coronary artery bypass grafting procedure and mounting thecardiac harness on the heart.
 64. The method of claim 35, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuateshyperkinesis.
 65. The method of claim 35, wherein after the acutemyocardial infarction, mounting the cardiac harness on the heart andperforming a coronary artery bypass grafting procedure.
 66. The methodof claim 35, wherein after the acute myocardial infarction, performing acoronary artery bypass grafting procedure, and mounting the cardiacharness, integrated with an implantable pacemaker or a defibrillator, onthe heart.
 67. The method of claim 36, wherein a coronary artery bypassgrafting procedure is performed and the mounting of the cardiac harnessincludes integrating a pacemaker or defibrillator with the cardiacharness.
 68. A method for attenuating remodeling of a heart, comprising:mounting a cardiac harness on the heart, the cardiac harness havingelastic hinges for applying a compressive force on the heart during atleast a portion of a cardiac cycle; decreasing wall stress on the leftventricle by action of the compressive force of the elastic hinges; andattenuating expansion or remodeling of the heart as the elastic hingesof the cardiac harness apply compressive force on the heart during theat least a portion of the cardiac cycle.
 69. The method of claim 68,wherein the elastic hinges mechanically resist size and shape changes inthe heart.
 70. The method of claim 68, wherein the elastic hingesmechanically resist size and shape changes in the heart after an acutemyocardial infarction.
 71. The method of claim 68, wherein thecompressive force of the elastic hinges decreases left ventricular sizeand reshapes the left ventricle.
 72. The method of claim 71, wherein asthe left ventricle decreases in size and reshapes, the compressive forceof the cardiac harness on the heart automatically decreases.
 73. Themethod of claim 68, wherein the compressive force of the elastic hingeson the heart is less than 10 mm Hg.
 74. The method of claim 68, whereinthe compressive force of the elastic hinges on the heart is in the rangeof compressive force of native pericardium.
 75. The method of claim 74,wherein the compressive force of the elastic hinges on the heart is inthe range of 3 to 4 mm Hg.
 76. The method of claim 68, wherein thecompressive force on the heart is applied during diastole.
 77. Themethod of claim 68, wherein the compressive force on the heart isapplied during systole.
 78. The method of claim 68, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the elastic hinges counteractsparadoxical bulging of an infarct region occurring in dyskinetic andaneurysmal hearts during systole.
 79. The method of claim 68, whereinthe compressive force on the heart applied by the elastic hingesattenuates dyssynchrony.
 80. The method of claim 68, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the elastic hinges attenuateshypokinesis.
 81. The method of claim 68, wherein the compressive forceon the heart applied by the elastic hinges attenuates akinesis.
 82. Themethod of claim 68, wherein the compressive force on the heart appliedby the elastic hinges attenuates dyskmesis.
 83. The method of claim 76,wherein after an acute myocardial infarction, applying the compressiveforce during diastole and systole.
 84. The method of claim 83, whereinthe compressive force on the heart applied by the elastic hingescounteracts paradoxical bulging of an infarct region occurring indyskinetic and aneurysmal hearts during systole.
 85. The method of claim83, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiacharness attenuates dyssynchrony.
 86. The method of claim 83, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuateshypokinesis.
 87. The method of claim 83, wherein the compressive forceon the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuates akinesis.
 88. Themethod of claim 83, wherein the compressive force on the heart appliedby the cardiac harness attenuates dyskinesis.
 89. The method of claim83, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the elastichinges attenuates infarct expansion.
 90. The method of claim 68, whereinthe cardiac harness is mounted on a beating heart.
 91. The method ofclaim 90, wherein the cardiac harness is delivered to the heart byminimally invasive access.
 92. The method of claim 68, wherein thecardiac harness is delivered to the heart through a small incision inthe pericardium.
 93. The method of claim 68, wherein prior to mountingthe cardiac harness on the heart, performing a coronary artery bypassgrafting procedure on the heart.
 94. The method of claim 68, whereinprior to mounting the cardiac harness on the heart, repairing orreplacing a heart valve.
 95. The method of claim 68, wherein the cardiacharness is integrated with an implantable pacemaker or an implantablecardiac defibrillator.
 96. The method of claim 68, wherein the cardiacharness is mounted during coronary artery bypass grafting.
 97. Themethod of claim 68, wherein after an acute myocardial infarction,performing a coronary artery bypass grafting procedure and mounting thecardiac harness on the heart.
 98. The method of claim 68, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the elastic hinges attenuateshyperkinesis.
 99. The method of claim 68, wherein after an acutemyocardial infarction, mounting the cardiac harness on the heart andperforming a coronary artery bypass grafting procedure.
 100. The methodof claim 68, wherein after an acute myocardial infarction, performing acoronary artery bypass grafting procedure, and mounting the cardiacharness, integrated with an implantable pacemaker or a defibrillator, onthe heart.
 101. The method of claim 68, wherein a coronary artery bypassgrafting procedure is performed and the mounting of the cardiac harnessincludes integrating a pacemaker or defibrillator with the cardiacharness.
 102. A method for preventing remodeling of a heart, comprising:mounting a cardiac harness on the heart, the cardiac harness applying acompressive force on the heart during at least a portion of a cardiaccycle; decreasing wall stress on the left ventricle by action of thecompressive force of the cardiac harness; and preventing expansion orremodeling of the heart as the cardiac harness applies compressive forceon the heart during the at least a portion of the cardiac cycle. 103.The method of claim 102, wherein the cardiac harness mechanicallyresists size and shape changes in the heart.
 104. The method of claim102, wherein the cardiac harness mechanically resists size and shapechanges in the heart after an acute myocardial infarction.
 105. Themethod of claim 102, wherein the compressive force of the cardiacharness decreases left ventricular size and reshapes the left ventricle.106. The method of claim 105, wherein as the left ventricle decreases insize and reshapes, the compressive force of the cardiac harness on theheart automatically decreases.
 107. The method of claim 102, wherein thecompressive force of the cardiac harness on the heart is less than 10 mmHg.
 108. The method of claim 102, wherein the compressive force of thecardiac jacket on the heart is in the range of compressive force ofnative pericardium.
 109. The method of claim 108, wherein thecompressive force of the cardiac jacket on the heart is in the range of3 to 4 mm Hg.
 110. The method of claim 102, wherein the compressiveforce on the heart is applied during diastole.
 111. The method of claim102, wherein the compressive force on the heart is applied duringsystole.
 112. The method of claim 102, wherein the compressive force onthe heart applied by the cardiac harness counteracts paradoxical bulgingof an infarct region occurring in dyskinetic and aneurysmal heartsduring systole.
 113. The method of claim 102, wherein the compressiveforce on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuatesdyssynchrony.
 114. The method of claim 102, wherein the compressiveforce on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuateshypokinesis.
 115. The method of claim 102, wherein the compressive forceon the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuates akinesis. 116.The method of claim 102, wherein the compressive force on the heartapplied by the cardiac harness attenuates dyskinesis.
 117. The method ofclaim 102, wherein after an acute myocardial infarction, applying thecompressive force during diastole and systole.
 118. The method of claim117, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiacharness counteracts paradoxical bulging of an infarct region occurringin dyskinetic and aneurysmal hearts during systole.
 119. The method ofclaim 117, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by thecardiac harness attenuates dyssynchrony.
 120. The method of claim 117,wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiacharness attenuates hypokinesis.
 121. The method of claim 117, whereinthe compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harnessattenuates akinesis.
 122. The method of claim 117, wherein after anacute myocardial infarction, applying the compressive force duringdiastole and systole.
 123. The method of claim 117, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuatesinfarct expansion.
 124. The method of claim 102, wherein the compressiveforce on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuates infarctexpansion.
 125. The method of claim 102, wherein the cardiac harness ismounted on a beating heart.
 126. The method of claim 125, wherein thecardiac harness is delivered to the heart by minimally invasive access.127. The method of claim 126, wherein the cardiac harness is deliveredto the heart through a small incision in the pericardium.
 128. Themethod of claim 102, wherein prior to mounting the cardiac harness onthe heart, performing a coronary artery bypass grafting procedure on theheart.
 129. The method of claim 102, wherein prior to mounting thecardiac harness on the heart, repairing or replacing a heart valve. 130.The method of claim 102, wherein the cardiac harness is integrated withan implantable pacemaker or an implantable cardiac defibrillator. 131.The method of claim 102, wherein the cardiac harness is mounted duringcoronary artery bypass grafting.
 132. The method of claim 102, whereinafter an acute myocardial infarction, performing a coronary arterybypass grafting procedure and mounting the cardiac harness on the heart.133. The method of claim 102, wherein the compressive force on the heartapplied by the cardiac harness attenuates hyperkinesis.
 134. The methodof claim 102, wherein after an acute myocardial infarction, mounting thecardiac harness on the heart and performing a coronary artery bypassgrafting procedure.
 135. The method of claim 102, wherein after an acutemyocardial infarction, performing a coronary artery bypass graftingprocedure, and mounting the cardiac harness, integrated with animplantable pacemaker or a defibrillator, on the heart.
 136. The methodof claim 102, wherein a coronary artery bypass grafting procedure isperformed and the mounting of the cardiac harness includes integrating apacemaker or defibrillator with the cardiac harness.
 137. A method forattenuating remodeling of a heart, comprising: mounting a cardiacharness on the heart, the cardiac harness applying a compressive forceon the heart during at least a portion of a cardiac cycle; decreasingwall stress on the left ventricle and the right ventricle by action ofthe compressive force of the cardiac harness; and attenuating expansionor remodeling of the heart as the cardiac harness applies compressiveforce on the heart during the at least a portion of the cardiac cycle.138. The method of claim 137, wherein the cardiac harness mechanicallyresists size and shape changes in the heart.
 139. The method of claim137, wherein the cardiac harness mechanically resists size and shapechanges in the heart after an acute myocardial infarction.
 140. Themethod of claim 137, wherein the compressive force of the cardiacharness decreases left and right ventricular size and reshapes the leftand right ventricles.
 141. The method of claim 140, wherein as the leftand right ventricles decrease in size and reshapes, the compressiveforce of the cardiac harness on the heart automatically decreases. 142.The method of claim 137, wherein the compressive force of the cardiacharness on the heart is less than 10 mm Hg.
 143. The method of claim137, wherein the compressive force of the cardiac jacket on the heart isin the range of compressive force of native pericardium.
 144. The methodof claim 143, wherein the compressive force of the cardiac jacket on theheart is in the range of 3 to 4 mm Hg.
 145. The method of claim 137,wherein the compressive force on the heart is applied during diastole.146. The method of claim 137, wherein the compressive force on the heartis applied during systole.
 147. The method of claim 137, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harnesscounteracts paradoxical bulging of an infarct region occurring indyskinetic and aneurysmal hearts during systole.
 148. The method ofclaim 137, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by thecardiac harness attenuates dyssynchrony.
 149. The method of claim 137,wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiacharness attenuates hypokinesis.
 150. The method of claim 137, whereinthe compressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harnessattenuates akmesis.
 151. The method of claim 137, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuatesdyskinesis.
 152. The method of claim 137, wherein after an acutemyocardial infarction, applying the compressive force during diastoleand systole.
 153. The method of claim 152, wherein the compressive forceon the heart applied by the cardiac harness counteracts paradoxicalbulging of an infarct region occurring in dyskinetic and aneurysmalhearts during systole.
 154. The method of claim 152, wherein thecompressive force on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuatesdyssynchrony.
 155. The method of claim 152, wherein the compressiveforce on the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuateshypokinesis.
 156. The method of claim 152, wherein the compressive forceon the heart applied by the cardiac harness attenuates akinesis. 157.The method of claim 152, wherein the compressive force on the heartapplied by the cardiac harness attenuates dyskinesis.
 158. The method ofclaim 152, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by thecardiac harness attenuates infarct expansion.
 159. The method of claim137, wherein the cardiac harness is mounted on a beating heart.
 160. Themethod of claim 159, wherein the cardiac harness is delivered to theheart by minimally invasive access.
 161. The method of claim 160,wherein the cardiac harness is delivered to the heart through a smallincision in the pericardium.
 162. The method of claim 137, wherein priorto mounting the cardiac harness on the heart, performing a coronaryartery bypass grafting procedure on the heart.
 163. The method of claim137, wherein prior to mounting the cardiac harness on the heart,repairing or replacing a heart valve.
 164. The method of claim 137,wherein the cardiac harness is integrated with an implantable pacemakeror an internal cardiac defibrillator.
 165. The method of claim 137,wherein the cardiac harness is mounted during coronary artery bypassgrafting.
 166. The method of claim 137, wherein after an acutemyocardial infarction, performing a coronary artery bypass graftingprocedure and mounting the cardiac harness on the heart.
 167. The methodof claim 137, wherein the compressive force on the heart applied by thecardiac harness attenuates hyperkinesis.
 168. The method of claim 137,wherein after an acute myocardial infarction, mounting the cardiacharness on the heart and performing a coronary artery bypass graftingprocedure.
 169. The method of claim 137, wherein after an acutemyocardial infarction, performing a coronary artery bypass graftingprocedure, and mounting the cardiac harness, integrated with animplantable pacemaker or a defibrillator, on the heart.
 170. The methodof claim 137, wherein a coronary artery bypass grafting procedure isperformed and the mounting of the cardiac harness includes integrating apacemaker or defibrillator with the cardiac harness.